Sentence function
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In linguistics, sentence function refers to a speaker's purpose in uttering a specific sentence, phrase, or clause. Whether a listener is present or not is sometimes irrelevant. It answers the question: "Why has this been said?" The most basic sentence functions in the world's languages include the declarative, interrogative, exclamative, and the imperative. These correspond to a statement, question, exclamation, and command respectively. Typically, a sentence goes from one function to the next through a combination of changes in word order, intonation, the addition of certain auxiliaries or particles, and many times by providing a special verbal form as well. The four main categories can be further specified as being either communicative or informative.
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[edit] Communicative vs. Informative
The line between communicative and informative can at times become a little blurred. However they do differ in a few very important ways.
[edit] Communicative Sentences
These types of sentences are more intended for the speaker's sake than for any potential listener. They are meant more for the speaker's immediate wants and needs. These sentences tend to be less intentional (out of frustration for example), in general more rhetorical, more primitive, and are usually about the here and now. Because of these features, it is speculated that this is pretty much the basis or limitation of any form of animal communication. (Speculated because scientists will never truly be able to understand non-human forms of communication like we do our own.)
[edit] Exclamative
An exclamative or exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses strong emotion. They are comparabe to interjections in that they many times feel like involuntary reactions to a situation. However, exclamative sentences can be stifled if need be. Exclamatives are essentially a form of self-talk because they are directed either at the speaker themself or at nobody in particular. In punctuation, an exclamative is ended with an exclamation mark. For instance:
- I'll never finish this paper in time!
- Ouch, that hurt!
[edit] Imperative
An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, a suggestion, directions, or instructions. Imperative sentences are a little more intentional than exclamatory sentences and do require an audience; as their aim is to get the person(s) being spoken to to either do or not do something. The vocative case of nouns can be said to indicate the imperative as well since it does not seek information, but rather a reaction from the person or animal being addressed. An imperative can end in either a period or an exclamation point depending on delivery.
- After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and fluffy.
- Look at me!
[edit] Informative Sentences
Informative sentences are more for the benefit of both the listener and the speaker, and, in fact, require more of an interaction between both parties involved. They are more intentional or premeditated, less rhetorical, and they intend to either provide or retrieve information. But perhaps the most differentiating quality that distinguishes informative sentences from the communicative is that the former show displacement. Displacement is information lost in time and space which allows us to communicate ideas in the past or future (not just the now), and that have taken or can take place at a separate location (from here). To an extent, this is one of the biggest differences between human communication and that of other animals.
[edit] Declarative
The declarative sentence is the most common kind of sentence in any language, in most situations, and in a way can be considered the default function of a sentence. What this means essentially is that when a language modifies a sentence in order to form a question or give a command, the base form will always be the declarative. It states an idea, speaking either objectively or subjectively, giving information to the receiver. In writing, a statement will end with a period.
- Roses are red and violets are blue.
- She must be out of her mind.
[edit] Interrogative
An interrogative sentence asks a question and therefore ends with a question mark. Its effort is to try and gather information that is previously unknown to the interrogator, or to seek validation for a preconceived notion held. Sometimes it is approval or permission that is sought as well, among other reasons one could have for posing the question. The one exception in which it isn't information that is needed, is when the question happens to be rhetorical (see 'alter-functional implicature' section below).
- What do you want?
- Is David gay?
[edit] Declarative vs. Affirmative (vs. Positive)
A declarative statement should not be deemed synonymous with an affirmative one. This is because although a declarative statement can state facts (given that the speaker is not consciously lying), it can also express something which is not true. The information he or she is providing, (regardless of whether it be true or not in reality), is in fact true or false to that speaker. Therefore, a declarative can be either in the affirmative or in the negative, and we can say that, Joanna is late and Joanna is not late, both technically qualify as declarative sentences. Declarative refers to a sentence's function or purpose, while the terms affirmative or negative deal with the sentence's veracity, which is why they can overlap.
Another mistake is to confuse the affirmative for the positive. Although it can semantically seem natural that positive should be the opposite of negative and therefore synonymous with affirmative, grammatically speaking, once again they are separate entities. Positive in linguistic terms refers to the degree of the quality of an adjective or adverb (along with the comparative and superlative), while affirmative refers to the perceived veracity of the entire sentence.
Thus, all being separate entities, an adjective or adverb can be in the positive degree but expressed in the negative, so that the sentence: This hummer does not seem to be eco-friendly, has all negative, positive, and declarative properties.
In fact, an exclamatory, imperative, as well as a question can be in the negative form; I can't do this!, Don't touch me, Don't you want to?
[edit] Alter-Functional Implicature
There are many instances in which a sentence can be grammatically shaped as one function, yet in actual execution, may serve a completely different function or purpose than suggested by the way it was constructed. Or in other words, it is very subtly yet unequivocally implied by process of pragmatics that its function must be changed to another in order for the sentence to make sense in the present context of conversation.
A classic example would be the "question": Could you pass the salt?
In the above sentence, although it is grammatically structured as a question, it can safely be inferred that the speaker is not inquiring as to whether the person they are addressing is physically capable of passing the salt at the dinnertable or not. What the speaker really seeks to accomplish or get accomplished upon utterance is to literally get their interlocutor to pass them the salt; it is a request (note that adding a word like 'please' at the end would tend to make this point clearer and also note that as a question, this request is perceived as being more polite than if it were simply in the imperative). Therefore, what at first may come off as an interrogative sentence upon immediate delivery, the listener must quickly reinterpret as an imperative and respond accordingly.
Other examples include:
- Interrogative structure with exclamative function: Why does this keep happening to me?
I know there's no real answer to this, I just want to vent out my frustration vocally.
- Declarative structure with imperative function: I would feel more comfortable if you wore your seatbelt.
I'm not simply cluing you in to my current state of being for the heck of it, I'm strongly urging you to buckle up.
The list goes on, and as a matter of fact, all 12 combinations between each of the four functions and their three other counterparts are possible.
[edit] See also
[edit] Sources
- CyberGrammar.com.uk
- Laurie E. Rozakis, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style. 2003. ISBN 978-1592571154
- George Yule, The Study of Language. 2005. ISBN 978-0521543200
- Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct. 1994 ISBN 0-06-095833-2
