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Political correctness

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Political correctness (noun) and politically correct (adjective) (PC) are the terms applied to language, ideas, policies, and behaviour meant to enforce ideologic conformity to an orthodox authority. The usages are principally pejorative — ridiculing the “unquestionable authority” of the orthodoxy and the authority figure. The adjectival term politically incorrect denotes language and ideas, unconstrained by orthodoxy, that might offend the orthodox PC folk. The usage controversy lies in the implicitly negative connotation of political correctness, while politically incorrect implicitly connotes a positive self-description, e.g. Bill Maher, host of the US television political discussion programme Politically Incorrect (1993–96, 1997–2002). [1][2]


Contents

[edit] History

[edit] Early usages

During the First World War, British Ministry of Information official Arnold Bennett used the expression politically correct in vetting language for “appropriateness”. [3] The Liberian stateswoman Ruth Perry traces the term from Mao Zedong’s Little Red Book (1964). Since its 1949 founding, the People’s Republic of China banned religions, and allowed only Marxism and Maoism as the politically correct belief systems, thus, being politically incorrect — to contradict Marxism and Maoism — might lead either to jail or to death, or to both. So, during the decade-long Cultural Revolution (1966–76) people watched their words, to avoid the any possible misinterpretation that might contradict either Marx or Mao. Later, outside Communist China, that extreme care in speaking ridiculed the lack of freedom of speech and the unquestionable authority of official political doctrine. In the 1960s, the radical Left adopted the term, initially seriously, then ironically, in self-criticism of dogmatic attitudes. In the 1990s, because of the term’s association with radical left-wing politics and Communist censorship, the US Right applied it to discredit the Old Left and the New Left. [1]

[edit] In Marxism–Leninism

In Marxist–Leninist and Trotskyist vocabulary, correct was the common term denoting the “appropriate party line” and the ideologically “correct line”. [4] Like-wise in the People's Republic of China, as part of Mao’s declarations on the correct handling of “non-antagonistic contradictions”. [1][5] [6] [7]

[edit] In the USA

The earliest citation is not politically correct, found in the U.S. Supreme Court decision Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), denoting that the statement under judgement is literally incorrect, as understood in the eighteenth-century US: “The states, rather than the People, for whose sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects which attract and arrest our principal attention. . . . Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, language. Is a toast asked? [To] ‘The United States’, instead of [to] the ‘People of the United States’, is the toast given. This is not politically correct.” [8]

[edit] In left-wing rhetoric

In the 1990s, the US Right used the term political correctness as a straw man in challenging the legal validity of leftist social change — especially about legal equality in matters of societal race relations, religion (Church–State separation), and gender. [2][9] [10] [11] [12] Even before the term PC appeared, the Left mocked its own language usage in the pamphlet Lifeitselfmanship or How to Become a Precisely-Because Man (1956), by Jessica Mitford, about “L and non-L” (Left and non-Left) English, mocking the Communist clichés used by her comrades when talking about fighting the class struggle. The pamphlet’s title refers to the Stephen Potter book series including the title Lifemanship, and replies to Noblesse Oblige, by Nancy Mitford, about the perceptible class distinctions in British English usage, that popularised the phrases “U and non-U English” (Upper class and non-Upper class). [13][14]

In the event, by 1970, New Left proponents had adopted the term political correctness. [1] In the essay The Black Woman, Toni Cade Bambara says: “. . . a man cannot be politically correct and a [male] chauvinist too” — a usage that widened the definition’s scope to include the politics of gender and identity to the politics of ideologic orthodoxy in governing. The New Left thus re-appropriated the term political correctness as satirical self-criticism; per Debra Shultz: “Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives . . . used their term politically correct ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts”. [1][2][15] Hence, it is a popular English usage in the underground comic book Merton of the Movement, by Bobby London, while ideologically sound an alternative term, followed a like lexical path, appearing in Bart Dickon’s satirical comic strips. [1][16] Moreover, Ellen Willis says: “ . . . in the early ’80s, when feminists used the term political correctness, it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti-pornography movement’s efforts to define a ‘feminist sexuality’ ”. [17]

[edit] In right-wing rhetoric

In the 1990s, after the Cold War (1945–91), these obscure terms — political correctness and politically correct — featured in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against curriculum expansion and progressive teaching methods in US high schools and universities. [18] In 1991, addressing a graduating class of the University of Michigan, U.S. President George H. W. Bush spoke against “ . . . a movement [that would] declare certain topics ‘off-limits’, certain expressions ‘off-limits’, even certain gestures ‘off-limits’ ” in allusion to liberal Political Correctness. [19]

[edit] World-wide

The term politically correct is popular in Scandinavia (politiskt korrekt=pk), in Portugal, Spain, and Latin America (Sp., políticamente correcto | Port., políticamente correto), France (politiquement correct), Germany (politisch korrekt), Poland (poprawność polityczna, poprawny politycznie), The Netherlands and Flanders (politiek correct=poco[citation needed]), Italy (politicamente corretto), Russia (политкорректность, политкорректный), and New Zealand, [20] .

[edit] Explanations

[edit] As a linguistic concept

In addressing the linguistic problem of naming, Edna Andrews says that using “inclusive” and “neutral” language is based upon the concept that “language represents thought, and may even control thought”; [21] per the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, a language’s grammatical categories shape the speaker’s ideas and actions; although Andrews says that moderate conceptions of the relation between language and thought are sufficient to support the “reasonable deduction . . . [of] cultural change via linguistic change”. [22] Other cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics works indicate that word-choice has significant “framing effects” on the perceptions, memories, and attitudes of speakers and listeners. [23] [24] The relevant empirical question is whether or not sexist language promotes sexism, i.e. sexist thought and action.

Advocates of political correctness defend it as inoffensive-language usage whose goal is multi-fold:

  1. The rights, opportunities, and freedoms of certain people are restricted because they are reduced to stereotypes.
  2. Stereotyping is mostly implicit, unconscious, and facilitated by the availability of pejorative labels and terms.
  3. Rendering the labels and terms socially unacceptable, people then must consciously think about how they describe someone unlike themselves.
  4. When labelling is a conscious activity, the described person's individual merits become apparent, rather stereotypical.

A further complication is that terms chosen by an identity group, as acceptable descriptors of themselves, then pass into common usage, including usage by the racists and sexists whose racism and sexism, et cetera, the new terms mean to supersede. The new terms are thus devalued, and another set of words must be coined, giving rise to lengthy progressions such as Negro, Coloured, Black, African-American, and so on, (cf. Euphemism treadmill).

[edit] As an engineered political term

Liberal and Left-wing commentators observed that after 1980, right-wing American conservatives re-engineered the term political correctness to ideologically re-frame US politics as a culture war. Hutton reports:

Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid-1980s, as part of its demolition of American liberalism. . . . What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism — by levelling the charge of “political correctness” against its exponents — they could discredit the whole political project. [25]

Moreover, the commentators claimed there never was a “Political Correctness movement” in the US, and that many who use the term do so to distract attention from substantive debate about racial, class and gender discrimination and unequal legal treatment. [26] Similarly, Polly Toynbee argued that “the phrase is an empty right-wing smear designed only to elevate its user.” [27]

[edit] As Cultural Marxism

Right-wing and conservative critics claim that political correctness is a Marxist undermining of Western values. [28] In The Abolition of Britain, Peter Hitchens says: “What Americans describe with the casual phrase . . . ‘political correctness’ is the most intolerant system of thought to dominate the British Isles since the Reformation.” William S. Lind and Patrick Buchanan have characterized PC as a technique originated by the Frankfurt School, whose work aimed at undermining Western values, by influencing popular culture through Cultural Marxism. [29][30] In The Death of the West, Buchanan says: “Political Correctness is Cultural Marxism, a regime to punish dissent and to stigmatize social heresy as the Inquisition punished religious heresy. Its trademark is intolerance.” [31]

[edit] Criticism

[edit] General

Political correctness is censorship endangering free speech by limiting what is acceptable public discourse, especially in universities and politics. University of Pennsylvania professor Alan Charles Kors and lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate, connect political correctness to Marxist philosopher Herbert Marcuse’s claim that liberal ideas of free speech were repressive, arguing that such “Marcusean logic” is the base of speech codes in US universities, and later established the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, which campaigns against PC speech codes. [32]

Politically correct language is awkward euphemism for true language, a type of Newspeak that marginalises words, phrases, actions, and attitudes through public disesteem. [33] [34] [35] Hence the ridiculing terms PC brigade and diversity dictators and PC Police.[citation needed] The academic Camille Paglia said that PC empowers the enemies of the Left, and alienates the masses against feminism. [36] It is coercion, the power to dominate people and control of human life, because that correctness is subjective — that of the government, the racial minority, and the special-interest group conservatives combat. [37] The Right argue that in silencing contradiction, the PC establish their perspectives as orthodox, and then accepted as true, because freedom of thought requires the ability to choose among perspectives. [38][39] Thus the right-wing view of PC as “The Scourge of Our Times”.[40]

In Norway, the NRK broadcasting company altered Pippi Longstocking to be “less excluding”. [41] In the original, the protagonist’s father is nigh permanently absent, because he is a tropical island negerkonge (Negro King). The NRK alteration makes the father a sydhavskonge (Southern Sea King). [42] A second NRK-production deleted the word neger, [43] which is one of several debated [44][45] episodes in Norway [46] [47] where some words were deemed racistly inappropriate, and subsequently reduced, criticised, and outlawed.[48]

Critics of PC have shown the same sensitivity to word choice that they claim to oppose, and of perceiving non-existent political agenda. [49] For example, some newspapers reported that a school had altered the nursery rhyme “Baa Baa Black Sheep” to read “Baa Baa Rainbow Sheep”.[50] In fact, the Parents and Children Together (PACT) nursery had the children “turn the song into an action rhyme. . . . They sing happy, sad, bouncing, hopping, pink, blue, black and white sheep etc.” [51] That spurious nursery rhyme story was circulated and later extended to suggest that like language bans applied to the terms “black coffee” and “blackboard”. [52] The Private Eye magazine reported that like stories, all baseless, ran in the British press since The Sun first published them in 1986.[49]

[edit] Political correctness and science

Groups opposing evolution, global warming, passive smoking, AIDS, race, and other contentious scientific matters argue that PC is responsible for the failure of their perspectives to receive a fair public hearing; thus, in Lamarck’s Signature: How Retrogenes are Changing Darwin’s Natural Selection Paradigm, Assoc. Prof. Edward J. Steele says: “We now stand on the threshold of what could be an exciting new era of genetic research. . . . However, the ‘politically correct’ thought agendas of the neo–Darwinists of the 1990s are ideologically opposed to the idea of ‘Lamarckian Feedback’, just as the Church was opposed to the idea of evolution based on natural selection in the 1850s!” [53]

The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science, by Tom Bethell, is a comprehensive presentation argument that mainstream science is dominated by politically correct thinking. Bethell rejects mainstream views about evolution and global warming, and supports AIDS denialism. [54]

[edit] Right wing political correctness

Enforced orthodoxy is common to the political right, too. Before the US invasion of Iraq, the Dixie Chicks country band played in London. During the 10 March 2003 concert, they introduced the song “Travelin’ Soldier”; The Guardian quoted Texan Natalie Maines: “Just so you know, we’re on the good side with y’all. We do not want this war, this violence, and we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas.” [55] Newspaper columnist Don Williams described the resulting backlash against the band as the price for freely speaking political views disapproved by the Right Wing — “the ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there’s a war on. Then you’d better watch what you say.” He noted that Ann Coulter and Bill O'Reilly called the musicians’ comment treasonous.[56] Linguistic examples of right-wing PC are renaming French fries as “Freedom fries”; and renaming sauerkraut as “Liberty cabbage” during the First World War.

In 2004, then Australian Labor leader Mark Latham described conservative calls for "civility" as "The New Political Correctness".[57]

[edit] Satirical use

Political correctness often is satirised, for example in the Politically Correct Manifesto (1992), by Saul Jerushalmy and Rens Zbignieuw X, [58] and Politically Correct Bedtime Stories (1994), by James Finn Garner, presenting fairy tales re-written from an exaggerated PC perspective. The television programme Politically Incorrect, and George Carlin’s "Euphemisms" routine, The Politically Correct Scrapbook, and the South Park cartoon programme. [59] Replying to the “Freedom Fries” matter, wits suggested that the Fama-French model used in corporate finance be renamed the “Fama-Freedom” model. [60]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Ruth Perry, (1992), "A short history of the term 'politically correct'" in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding by Aufderheide, Patricia 1992
  2. ^ a b c Schultz, Debra L. (1993). To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the “Political Correctness” Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women. [1]
  3. ^ Flower, Newmas (2006). The Journals of Arnold Bennett. READ BOOKS,. ISBN 9781406710472. http://books.google.com/books?id=kRJblj1e4zsC&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=%22Political+correctness%22+%22arnold+bennett%22&source=bl&ots=uHz1-mU8OI&sig=SiegIW8PpdthjysBksX9m9yL5sw&hl=en&ei=7nEqSt2hBtmZjAe4vpHhCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. 
  4. ^ "Marxism and Form". http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051212/collini. Retrieved on 2007-08-26. 
  5. ^ Chang-tu Hu, International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education, Vol. 10, No. 1. (1964), pp.12–21.
  6. ^ Susan Biele Alitto, Comparative Education Review, Vol. 13, No. 1. (Feb. 1969), pp.43–59.
  7. ^ "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. 1957-02-27. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/428696/On-the-Correct-Handling-of-Contradictions-Among-the-People. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  8. ^ Chisholm v State of GA, 2 US 419 (1793) Findlaw.com - Accessed 6 February 2007. “The states, rather than the People, for whose sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects which attract and arrest our principal attention. . . . Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, language. Is a toast asked? ‘The United States’, instead of the ‘People of the United States’, is the toast given. This is not politically correct.”
  9. ^ Ellen Messer-Davidow (1993) “Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education”, Social Text, Fall, pp.40–80.
    Ellen Messer-Davidow (1994) “Who (Ac)Counts and How”, MMLA (The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association), vol. 27, no. 1, Spring, pp.26–41.
  10. ^ P. Lauter (1995) “ ‘Political correctness’ and the attack on American colleges”, in M. Bérubé & C. Nelson, Higher education under fire: Politics, economics, and the crisis in the humanities New York, NY: Routledge.
  11. ^ Valerie L. Scatamburlo (1998) Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right’s Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness, Counterpoints series, Vol. 25. New York: Peter Lang.
  12. ^ * Barry Glassner (1999) The Culture of Fear New York: Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-01489-5 / ISBN 0-465-01490-9
  13. ^ Severo, Richard (23 July 1996). "Jessica Mitford, Mordant Critic of American Ways, and a British Upbringing, Dies at 78". The New York Times. Jessica Mitford Memorial Site. http://www.mitford.org/nytimes.htm. Retrieved on 2007-10-28. 
  14. ^ Cohen, Nick (20 August 2001). "Do you speak New Labour?". The New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200108200009. Retrieved on 2007-10-28. 
  15. ^ Schultz citing Perry (1992) p.16
  16. ^ Joel Bleifuss (February 2007). "A Politically Correct Lexicon". In These Times. http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3027/a_politically_correct_lexicon/. 
  17. ^ Ellen Willis, “Toward a Feminist Revolution”, in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays (1992) Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0-8195-5250-X, p.19.
  18. ^ D’Souza 1991; Berman 1992; Schultz 1993; Messer Davidow 1993, 1994; Scatamburlo 1998
  19. ^ Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor, May 4, 1991. George Bush Presidential Library.
  20. ^ mapp (9 December 2005). "Political Correctness - Next Steps". http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PA0512/S00144.htm. Retrieved on 2007-04-19. 
  21. ^ Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming, Edna Andrews, American Speech, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter, 1996), pp.389-404.
  22. ^ Development and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, March 2000, by Janet B. Parks, Mary Ann Roberton [2]
  23. ^ Loftus, E. and Palmer, J. 1974. “Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory”. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13, pp.585-9
  24. ^ Kahneman, D. and Amos Tversky. 1981. “The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice”. Science, 211, pp.453-8
  25. ^ Hutton W, “Words really are important, Mr Blunkett” The Observer, Sunday 16 December 2001 - Accessed 6 February 2007.
  26. ^ Messer–Davidow 1993, 1994; Schultz 1993; Lauter 1995; Scatamburlo 1998; and Glassner 1999.
  27. ^ Toynbee P, “Religion must be removed from all functions of state”, The Guardian, Sunday 12 December 2001 - Accessed 6 February 2007.
  28. ^ [3][dead link]
  29. ^ "William S. Lind says Political Correctness is a form of cultural marxism". Academia.org. http://www.academia.org/lectures/lind1.html. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  30. ^ "Buchanan interview on Fox News". Foxnews.com. 2005-05-27. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,157952,00.html. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  31. ^ Buchanan, Patrick The Death of the West, p.89
  32. ^ Kors, A.C. and Silvergate, H, "Codes of silence - who's silencing free speech on campus -- and why" Reason Magazine (online), November 1998 - Accessed 6 February 2007.
  33. ^ "Beyond political correctness." HPR online (the online site of the Harvard political review), Posted 6 March 2006 - Accessed 6 February 2007.
  34. ^ Young C. "Under the radar - political correctness never died." Reason Online July 2004 - Accessed 6 February 2007. "On campuses across America, the censorship of speech and ideas in the name of sensitivity continues unabated."
  35. ^ Schmidt M. "The Orwellian Language of Big Government" NTUF Policy Paper 152'.' Retrieved 3 February 2007.
  36. ^ Camille Paglia says it best-- Accessed 2 February 2007. “My message to the media is: ‘Wake up!’ The silencing of authentic debate among feminists just helps the rise of the far right. When the media get locked in their Northeastern ghetto and become slaves of the feminist establishment and fanatical special interests, the American audience ends up looking to conservative voices for common sense. As a libertarian Democrat, I protest against this self-defeating tyranny of political correctness.”
  37. ^ Bailyn B. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, pp.55-6. Cambridge: The Harvard University Press (1967,1992). ISBN 0-674-44302-0. “The essence of what they meant by power was perhaps best revealed inadvertently by John Adams as he groped for words in drafting his Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law. Twice choosing and then rejecting the word power, he finally selected as the specification of the thought he had in mind dominion, and in this association of words the whole generation concurred. Power to them meant the dominion of some men over others, the human control of human life: ultimately force, compulsion."
  38. ^ Strauss L. Persecution and the Art of Writing, p.23. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1952. ISBN 0-226-77711-1. "They have not been convinced by compulsion, for compulsion does not produce conviction. It merely paves the way for conviction by silencing contradiction. What is called freedom of thought in a large number of cases amounts to — and even for all practical purposes consists of — the ability to choose between two or more different views presented by the small minority of people who are public speakers or writers. If this choice is prevented, the only kind of intellectual independence of which many people are capable is destroyed, and that is the only freedom of thought which is of political importance."
  39. ^ Mansfield HC "The cost of free speech." The Weekly Standard. October 3, 2005 - Accessed February 6, 2007. "For lively exchange you need balance, as it is easy for a dominant majority to be unruffled by dissent when it is only from a token few."
  40. ^ Political Correctness: The Scourge of Our Times - Agustin Blazquez with the collaboration of Jaums Sutton
  41. ^ Fjerner støtende ord NRK Kulturnytt
  42. ^ Pippis pappa ikke negerkonge lenger - Dagbladet, 12-2006
  43. ^ -Et overgrep mot litteraturen NRK Kulturnytt
  44. ^ -Greit å si neger NRK Nyheter
  45. ^ Raser etter fjerning av negerkonge TV2 Nettavisen
  46. ^ Negeren og nordmannen Aftenposten nett
  47. ^ Ikke gjør som mora di sier VG Nett
  48. ^ Forbudt å si neger Adresseavisa
  49. ^ a b "Obsolete: Baa Baa Rainbow Bollocks.". http://www.septicisle.info/2006/03/baa-baa-rainbow-bollocks.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-06. 
  50. ^ Blair, Alexandra (2006-03-07). "Why black sheep are barred and Humpty can't be cracked". The Times. http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/families/article738220.ece. Retrieved on 2007-10-05. 
  51. ^ "BBC NEWS". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4782856.stm. Retrieved on 2007-10-06. 
  52. ^ "Teen Ink - Bah, Bah, Rainbow Sheep". http://teenink.com/talk/showthread.php?s=cb96eb0a024fd73bbc9080f5184fd151&postid=322528. Retrieved on 2007-10-06. 
  53. ^ Robert V. Blanden; Steele, Edward David; Lindley, Robyn A. (1999). Lamarck's signature: how retrogenes are changing Darwin's natural selection paradigm. Reading, Mass: Perseus Books. ISBN 0-7382-0171-5. 
  54. ^ Bethell, Tom (2005). The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science. Washington, D.C: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0-89526-031-X. 
  55. ^ ""Shut Up and Sing": Dixie Chicks' Big Grammy Win Caps Comeback From Backlash Over Anti-War Stance". Democracynow.org. http://www.democracynow.org/2007/2/15/shut_up_and_sing_dixie_chicks. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  56. ^ "Don Williams Insights - Dixie Chicks Were Right". http://www.mach2.com/williams/index.php?t=1&c=20060602120901. Retrieved on 2007-11-09. 
  57. ^ "The New Political Correctness: Speech By Mark Latham [August 26, 2002]". Australianpolitics.com. http://www.australianpolitics.com/news/2002/08/02-08-26.shtml. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  58. ^ "TidBits: The PC Manifesto". Fiction.net. http://www.fiction.net/tidbits/politics/pc.html. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  59. ^ "Book - Buy Now". Capc.co.uk. http://www.capc.co.uk/PC%20_Scrapbook_Main.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  60. ^ ""Fama-French" Model Renamed "Fama-Freedom" Model - GSB News, Chicago Business". http://media.www.chibus.com/media/storage/paper408/news/2005/04/01/GsbNews/famaFrench.Model.Renamed.famaFreedom.Model-909279.shtml. Retrieved on 2007-11-09. 

[edit] Further reading

[edit] For

  • Aufderheide, Patricia. (ed.). 1992. Beyond P.C.: Toward a Politics of Understanding. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Graywolf Press.
  • Berman, Paul. (ed.). 1992. Debating P.C.: The Controversy Over Political Correctness on College Campuses. New York, New York: Dell Publishing.
  • Gottfried, Paul E., After Liberalism: Mass Democracy in the Managerial State, 1999. ISBN 0-691-05983-7
  • Jay, Martin., The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950, University of California Press, New Ed edition (March 5, 1996). ISBN 0-520-20423-9
  • Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003.

[edit] Against

[edit] Skeptical

  • Debra L. Schultz. 1993. To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the "Political Correctness" Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women.
  • Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

[edit] External links

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