Welcome to fedrix.com on July 5 2009.
This is an internet experiment running to monitor browsing habbits of individuals through wikipedia contents.

Islam in Burma

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Burmese Indian Muslims)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article or section has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues on the talk page.
  • Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since January 2008.
  • Its factual accuracy is disputed. Tagged since March 2008.
  • It is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. may be able to help recruit one. Tagged since February 2009.
It has been suggested that History of arrival of Islam in Burma be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

Part of a series on
Islam by country
Islam in Africa
Islam in Asia
Islam in Europe
Islam in Americas
Islam in Oceania
This box: view • talk • edit
The Bengali Sunni Jameh Mosque, built in the colonial era, is one of many mosques in Yangon.

Islam is a minority religion in Burma,[1] practiced by 4% of the population.[2]

Contents

[edit] History

Main article: History of arrival of Islam in Burma

[edit] Early Immigrants

The first Muslims arrived in Burma’s Ayeyarwady River delta, on the Tanintharyi coast and in Rakhine in the 9th century, prior to the establishment of the first Burmese empire in 1055 AD by King Anawrahta of Bagan.[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] These early Muslim settlements and the propagation of Islam were documented by Arab, Persian, European and Chinese travelers of the 9th century.[3][9] Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Muslim peoples who settled and intermarried with the local Burmese ethnic groups.[10][11] Muslims arrived in Burma as traders or settlers,[12] military personnel,[13] and prisoners of war,[13] refugees,[3] and as victims of slavery.[14] However, many early Muslims also held positions of status royal advisers, royal administrators, port authorities, mayors, and traditional medicine men.[15]

Persian Muslims arrived in northern Burma on the border with the Chinese region of Yunnan as recorded in the Chronicles of China in 860 AD.[3][16] Bermese Muslims were sometimes called Pathi,[17] a name believed to be derived from Persian. Many settlements in the southern region near present day Thailand were noted for the Muslim populations, with Muslims often outnumbered the local Burmese. In one record, Pathein was said to be populated with Pathis, [17] and was ruled by three Indian Muslim Kings in the 13th century.[18][19] [20] Arab merchants also arrived in Martaban, Margue, and there were Arab settlements in the present Meik archipelago’s mid-western quarters.[21]

During the reign of the Bagan King, Narathihapate (1255-1286), in the first Sino-Burman war, Kublai Khan’s Muslim Tatars invaded the Pagan Kingdom and occupied the area up to Nga Saung Chan. In 1283, Colonel Nasruddin’s Turks occupied the area up to Bamaw (Kaungsin).[22] Turk people (Tarek) were called Mongol, Manchuria, Mahamaden or Panthays.[23]

A Mosque in Mandalay

[edit] Muslim sailors and traders

Beginning in the seventh century, Arab travelers came from Madagascar traveling to China through the East Indian Islands, stopping in Thaton and Martaban.[24] Bago seamen, likely to be Muslims, were also recorded by the Arab historians of the 10th century. Following this, Burmese Muslim sailors and soldiers were reported to have traveled to Malacca during the reign of Sultan Parameswara in the fifteenth century [25]. From the fifteenth to seventeenth Centuries, there were several records of Burmese Muslim traders, sailors and settlers on the entire coast of Burma: the Arakan coast, (Rakhine), Ayeyarwady delta and Tanintharyi coast and islands.[26] In the 17th century, Muslims controlled business and became powerful. They were appointed Governors of Mergui, Viceroys of the Province of Tenasserim, Port Authorities, Port Governors and Shah-bandars (senior port officials).[27][28][29]

[edit] Muslim prisoners of war

Burma has a long history of settlements by Muslim prisoners of war. In 1613, King Anaukpetlun captured Thanlyin or Syriam. Indian Muslim mercenaries were captured, and later settled in Myedu, Sagaing, Yamethin and Kyaukse, areas north of Shwebo.[30] King Sane (Sa Nay Min Gyi)[citation needed] brought several thousand Muslim prisoners of war from Sandoway and settled in Myedu in 1707 AD. Three thousand Muslims from Arakan took refuge under King Sane in 1698-1714. They were divided and settled in Taungoo, Yamethin, Nyaung Yan, Yin Taw, Meiktila, Pin Tale, Tabet Swe, Bawdi, Syi Tha, Syi Puttra, Myae du and Depayin. This Royal decree was copied from the Amarapura Royal Library in 1801 by Kyauk Ta Lone Bo.[31] In the mid-18th century, King Alaungpaya attacked Assam and Manipur of India, then bringing more Muslims to settle in Burma. These Muslims later assimilated to form the core of Burmese Muslims.[3] During the rule of King Bagyidaw (1819-37), Maha Bandula conquered Assam and brought back 40,000 prisoners of war, many of whom were Muslims.[32]

[edit] Muslims in Pagan Period

Byat Wi and Byat Ta

The semi-historical account of Burmese history, Glass Palace Chronicle, records the first Muslims in Burma in the first Burmese empire, circa 1050 AD. Two Arab Muslim brothers, Byat Wi and Byat Ta, arrived in Thaton.[7][26] When the Thaton king learned of them, he became afraid of their strength and killed Byat Wi.[33] Byat Ta managed to escape to Bagan and took refuge with King Anawratha.[33] He married a girl from Popa with whom he had two sons, the Shwe Byin brothers.[33]

Shwe Byin brothers

The Shwe Byin brothers served the king as warriors.[34] Returning home, they refused to contribute to the construction of a pagoda at Taung Byone,[35] just north of Mandalay. The king ordered the two brothers to be punished for this disobedience, resulting in their execution.[35] After this, the royal boat would no longer move. Brahmans, royal consultants, interpreted that the two brothers had been loyal servants and were unjustly punished, thus becoming Nat who disabled the boat. To mollify them Anawrahta had the spirit-palace at Taung Byone built, and ordered the people to worship the two brothers.[35] Taung Byone, 14 km north of Mandalay, has about 7,000 nat shrines, of which nearly 2,000 are dedicated to the two Shwe Byin brothers, hosts an annual festival for five days.[7][36]

Nga Yaman Kan

King Anawrahta appointed a Muslim Arab[26] as a tutor for his son, Prince Sawlu. The tutor's son, Raman Khan, also known as Nga Yaman Kan, later became the Governor of Bago. After being beaten at dice, King Sawlu challenged Rahman Khan to rebel against him with the Bago province. Raman Khan accepted the challenge and trapped the King Sawlu with his army in the swamps.[5] Kyanzittha tried to rescue them, but Sawlu refused to be rescued and was later killed by Raman Khan. Raman Khan was ambushed by Nga Sin the hunter and died. Kyanzittha later became the third king of the Bagan Dynasty. While expending the empire, he brought back many Indian-Muslim captives, who settled in central Burma.[37]

[edit] Konbaung Dynasty

At the beginning of the Konbaung dynasty, King Alaungpaya attacked Mon peoples near Pyay. The Mon warrior Talapan was assisted in the defense by Muslim soldiers. In 1755 Alaungpaya conquered Dagon and renamed it Yangon, meaning 'The End of Strife'. The Mon soldiers surrendered, along with four Muslim rich men who surrendered with expensive presents, munitions and four warships.[38] Following this, Alaungpaya attacked Thanlyin and captured many Muslim artillery men[39], who were later allowed to serve in his army.Alaungpaya captured four warships and Muslim soldiers. \[40] After Alaungpaya captured Bago, a parade was held in which Pathi Muslim soldiers were allowed to march in their traditional uniforms.[41]

King Bodawpaya Bodaw U Wine (Padon Mayor, Padon Min) (1781-1819) of the Konbaung Dynasty founded Amarapura as his new capital in 1783. He was the first Burmese King who recognized his Muslim subjects officially by Royal decree, appointing specific ministers to give judgment regarding conflicts amongst his Burmese Muslim subjects.[42]

After deposing his brother following the Second Anglo-Burmese War, King Mindon Min showed favor to the Burmese Muslims. Several Muslims were giving rank in the military and civil administrations. In 1853 King Mindon held a donation ceremony in which he ordered the preparation of halal food for his 700 Muslim horse cavalry soldiers. Upon the founding of Mandalay, several quarters were granted to Muslims for settlement. Also at this time, Mindon Min allocated space for several mosques, including the Kone Yoe mosque. He also donated teak pillars from his palace for the construction of a mosque in the North Obo district of Mandalay, and began constructing of a mosque in his own palace to accommodate the Muslim members of his bodyguards. Finally, he assisted in building a rest house in Mecca for Burmese subjects performing Hajj.[43]

West Kone Yoe Central Mosque in Mandalay

Following the defeat of King Thibaw Min by the British in 1885, Burmese Muslims formed many groups organizations for Burmese social welfare and religious affairs. The total population of Muslims increased sharply during the British Rule in Burma, as a result of the Indian diaspora.

[edit] Demographics

Islam, mainly of the Sunni sect, is practiced by 4% of the population of Burma according to the government census. However, according to the U.S. State Department’s 2006 international religious freedom report, the country's non-Buddhist populations were underestimated in the census. Muslim leaders estimate that as much as 20% of the population may be Muslim.[44]

Various groups of Burmese Muslims

  • Muslims are spread across the country in small communities. The Indian-descended Muslims live mainly in Rangoon. See Burmese Indian Muslims.
  • The Rohingya are a minority Muslim ethnic group in Northern Rakhine State, Western Burma. The Rohingya population is mostly concentrated in five northern townships of Rakhine State: Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung, Akyab, Sandway, Tongo, Shokepro, Rashong Island and Kyauktaw.
  • Panthay, Burmese Chinese Muslims.
  • Muslims of Malay ancestry in Kawthaung. People of Malay ancestry are locally called Pashu regardless of religion.

[edit] Religion and society

[edit] Official policy

The stated official policy of the government of Burma is that all all ethnic, religious, and language groups in Burma are equal. The Lordship of the Supreme Court of Rangoon remarked: "Today, in the various parts of Burma, there are people who, because of the origin and the isolated way of life, are totally unlike the Burmese in appearance of speak of events which had occurred outside the limits of their habitation. They are nevertheless statutory citizens under the Union (of Burma) Citizenship Act..... Thus mere race or appearance of a person or whether he has a knowledge of any language of the Union is not the test as to whether he is a citizen of the Union".[45] Additionally, in 2005, the Ministry of Religious Affairs issued a declaration concerning freedom of religion:

All ethnic groups in Myanmar have been throughout the country since time immemorial. They have been living united in peace and harmony since the time of ancient Myanmar kings. Myanmar kings, in return, looked after the members of other religious faiths by kindly giving them religious, social and economic opportunities equal to those awarded to Buddhists. It is well known that, in order to enable his Majesty’s royal servants to fulfill their religious duties, Rakhine frame Mosque, Half-broken Mosque, Panthe Mosque, Mandalay Battery Ward Mosque and Christian Churches were allowed to be built and to perform respective religious duties during successive Myanmar kings. The Parton of the Fifth Buddhist Synod, King Mindone (1854 to 1878), during his rule built Peacock rest house in the Holy City of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, for the Muslims from Myanmar who went there on Haj pilgrimage to stay comfortably while they were there for about one and a half months. That act was one of the best testimonies in Myanmar history of how Myanmar kings looked after their Muslim subjects benevolently. Since the time of ancient Myanmar kings until the present day, successive Myanmar governments have given all four major religions an equal treatment. All the followers of each religion have been allowed to profess their respective religious faith and perform their respective duties freely. Myanmar’s culture is based on loving kindness; the followers of Islam, Christianity and Hinduism in Myanmar are also kind-hearted people as Myanmar Buddhists are.[43]

[edit] Persecution of Muslims in Burma

Main article: Persecution of Muslims in Burma

Historical persecution

The first instance of persecution that can be shown to have resulted from religious reasons occurred during the reign of King Bayinnaung, 1550-1589 AD.[13] After conquering Bago in 1559, he prohibited the practice of halal, specifically, killing food animals in the name of God. He was religiously intolerant, forcing some of his subjects to listen to Buddhist sermons possibly converting by force. He also disallowed the Edil Adha, Kurbani sacrifice of cattle.[13] The halal was also forbidden by King Alaungpaya in the 18th century.

King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) arrested four famous Myanmar Muslims Moulvis (Imams) from Myedu and killed them in Ava, the capital, after they refused to eat pork.[46] According to the Myedu Muslims and Burmese Muslims version there were seven dark days after that execution and the king later apologized and recognized them as saints.[47]

Religious and race riots

Under the British rule, economic pressures and xenophobia contributed to the rise of anti-Indian, and later anti-Muslim sentiment. Following an anti-Indian riot in 1930,[48] < racial tensions flared between the ethnic Burmese, Indian immigrants, and British rulers. Burmese sentiment turned against those viewed as foreigners, including Muslims of all ethnic groups.[48] Following this, an anti-Muslim riot occurred in 1938, strongly influenced by newspapers.[49][50]

Burma for Burmese Campaign

These events led to the creation of the Burma for Burmese only Campaign, which staged a march to a Muslim Bazaar.[51] While the Indian police broke the violent demonstration, three monks were hurt. Burmese newspapers used the pictures of Indian police attacking the Buddhist monks to further incite the spread of riots.[52] Muslim shops, houses, and mosques were looted, destroyed, or burnt to ashes. Muslims were also assaulted and killed. The violence spread throughout Burma, with a total of 113 mosques damaged.[53]

The Inquiry Committee by British

On 22 September 1938, the British Governor set up the Inquiry Committee.[54] This committee determined that the real cause of the discontent toward the government was deterioration of socio-political and economic conditions in Burma.[54] This report was also used by Burmese newspapers to incite hatred against the British, Indians, and Muslims.[54] The Simon Commission, which had been established to inquire into the effects of the Dyarchy system of ruling India and Burma in 1927, recommended that special places be assigned to the Burmese Muslims in the Legislative Council. It also recommended that full rights of citizenship should be guaranteed to all minorities: the right of free worship, the right to follow their own customs, the right to own property and to receive a share of the public revenues for the maintenance of their own educational and charitable institutions. It further recommended Home Rule or independent government separate from India or the status of dominion.

AFPFL expelled Burma Muslim Congress[55]

The BMC, Burma Muslim Congress was founded almost at the same time as the AFPFL, Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League of General Aung San and U Nu before World War Two.[56] U Nu became the first Prime Minister of Burma in 1948, following Burmese independence. Shortly after, he requested that the Burma Muslim Congress resign its membership from AFPFL. In response, U Khin Maung Lat, the new President of BMC, decided to discontinue the religious practices of the BMC and rejoin the AFPFL. U Nu asked the BMC to dissolve in 1955, and removed it from AFPFL on 30 September 1956. Later U Nu decreed Buddhism as the state religion of Burma, angering religious minorities.

Muslims under General Ne Win

After the coup d'état of General Ne Win in 1962, the status of Muslims changed for the worse. Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalized.[57] The generic racist slur of "kala" (black) used against perceived "foreigners" gained especially negative connotations when referring to Burmese Muslims during this time.[58] Accusations of "terrorism" were made against Muslim organizations such as the All Burma Muslim Union,ref>http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102</ref> causing Muslims to join armed resistance groups to fight for greater freedoms.[59]

Anti-Muslim Riots in Mandalay (1997)

On 16 March 1997 beginning at about 3:30 p.m., following reports of an attempted rape by Muslim men, a mob of about 1,000-1,500 Buddhist monks and others gathered in Mandalay. They targeted the mosques first for attack, followed by Muslim shop-houses and transportation vehicles in the vicinity of mosques. Looting, destruction of property, assault, and religious desecration all were reported.[60]At least three people were killed and around 100 monks arrested.[61]

Anti-Muslim Riots in Sittwe (2001)

Tension between Buddhists and Muslims was also high in Sittwe. The resentments are deeply rooted, and result from both communities feeling that they are under siege from the other. The violence in February 2001 flared up after an incident in which seven young monks refused to pay a Muslim stall holder for cakes they had just eaten. The Muslim seller, a woman, retaliated by beating one of the novices, according to a Muslim witness. He attested that several senior monks then came to protest and a brawl ensued. One of the monks was hit over the head by the Muslim seller’s husband and started to bleed. Riots then broke out. A full-scale riot erupted after dusk and carried on for several hours. Buddhists poured gasoline on Muslim homes and properties and set them alight. More than thirty homes and a Muslim guest house were burned down. Police and soldiers reportedly stood by and did nothing to stop the violence initially. There are no reliable estimates of the death toll or the number of injuries. More than twenty died according to some Muslim activists. The fighting took place in the predominantly Muslim part of town and so it was predominantly Muslim property that was damaged.[62]

Anti-Muslim Riots in Taungoo (2001)

In 2001,Myo Pyauk Hmar Soe Kyauk Hla Tai , The Fear of Losing One's Race, and many other anti-Muslim pamphlets were widely distributed by monks. Distribution of the pamphlets was also facilitated by the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA)[63], a civilian organization instituted by the ruling junta, the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). Many Muslims feel that this exacerbated the anti-Muslim feelings that had been provoked by the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in the Bamyan Province of Afghanistan.[62] Human Rights Watch reports that there was mounting tension between the Buddhist and Muslim communities in Taungoo for weeks before it erupted into violence in the middle of May 2001. Buddhist monks demanded that the Hantha Mosque in Taungoo be destroyed in "retaliation" for the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan.[64] Mobs of Buddhists, led by monks, vandalized Muslim-owned businesses and property and attacked and killed Muslims in Muslim communities.[65]On May, 15, 2001, anti-Muslim riots broke out in Taungoo, Bago division, resulting in the deaths of about 200 Muslims, in the destruction of 11 mosques, and setting ablaze of over 400 houses. On this day also, about 20 Muslims praying in the Han Tha mosque were beaten, some to death, by the pro-junta forces. On May, 17, 2001, Lt. General Win Myint, Secretary No. 3 of the SPDC and deputy Home and Religious minister arrived and curfew was imposed there in Taungoo. All communication lines were disconnected.[66] On May 18, the Han Tha mosque and Taungoo Railway station mosque were razed by bulldozers owned by the SPDC .[62] The mosques in Taungoo remained closed until May 2002, with Muslims forced to worship in their homes. After two days of violence the military stepped in and the violence immediately ended.[62] There also were reports that local government authorities alerted Muslim elders in advance of the attacks and warned them not to retaliate to avoid escalating the violence. While the details of how the attacks began and who carried them out were unclear by year's end, the violence significantly heightened tensions between the Buddhist and Muslim communities.[67]

[edit] Agents provocateur

While the idea of monks actually leading rioters may seem unusual, certain details make it less so. Burma's large and much feared military intelligence service, the Directorate of Defense Security Intelligence, is commonly believed to have agents working within the monk-hood. Human Rights Watch also reported that monks in the 2001 riots were carrying mobile phones, a luxury not readily available to the Burmese population, as very few without government connections can afford them. It is also reported that there was a clear split between monks who provoked violence and those who did not. It has been suggested by Human Rights Watch and others that these facts may reflect the presence of agents provocateur among the monks.[68]

[edit] Burmese Muslim Personalities

 This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (April 2009)
Main article: Famous Burmese Muslims
  • U Razak (20 January 1898 - 19 July 1947; Arabic: Abdul Razak) was a Burmese politician who was a respected educationalist, Minister of Education and National Planning, and chairman of the Burma Muslim Congress.[69] He was assassinated with his cabinet on 19 July 1947. This day is now celebrated as Martyrs' Day in Burma.
  • Ko Mya Aye[70] was a leader of the 8888 pro-democracy student activists in Burma. He was overwhelmingly elected as the Politician of the Year 2006 Burma by readers of the Burma Digest. [71][72] He led a campaign to collect signatures for a petition to release all political prisoners when many political leaders jailed by the SPDC. He took over all the responsibilities after Min Ko Naing, Pyone Cho, MinZaYa, Htay Kywel and Ko Ko Gyi were arrested.
  • U Kyaw Min is a political activist, political prisoner, and ethnic Rohingya. He served as the representative-electe of Butheetaung Township constituency, and belonged to the National Democratic Party for Human Rights and the CRPP. He was detained, along with his family, on 17 March, 2005. Subsequently, he was sentenced to 47 years imprisonment, hile his wife, two daughters, and son have received sentences of 17 years each.[73]
  • Saya Gyi U Nu was a Burmese Muslim writer during the reign of King Bodawpaya. He combined words and terms from Burmese religious literature with poetic writing and Islamic ideas to produce books which are regarded as classics of Burmese Muslim literature.[74] Bodawpaya appointed him as the head of a mission to India to retrieve books and scriptures in Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, and Persian.[75] Later, Saya Gyi U Nu was appointed as the Mayor of Yammar Wati with the title of Shwe Taung Tharga.[76]
  • U Shwe Yoe was a cartoonist, actor, comedian, and dancer, famous for playing the character U Ba Ga Lay. His most famous dance was U Ba Ga Lay’s jolly joker dance sequence in Ah Ba Yae, one of the earliest films made in Burma.[77][78]
  • Ba Shin was a noted historian and member of The Myanmar History Commission, UTC, and Islamic Religious Affairs Council.[79][80]
  • U Raschid was an activist in the Burmese nationalist movement against the British. He was the secretary general of the Rangoon University Students’ Association in 1931, and the first president of the All Burma Students’ Union. U Nu appointed him in various positions: Minister for Housing and Labour in 1952, Minister for Trade and Development in 1954, Minister of Mines in 1956, and Minister of Commerce and Industry in 1960 . In 1958 he was the Vice President of the Trade Union Council of Burma. U Nu requested that he change his name to U Yanshin to make him more acceptable to other Buddhists, but he declined. General Ne Win arrested him in 1962, during the coup.[81]
  • U Khin Maung Latt was one of the Burmese-Muslim Cabinet Ministers in government of U Nu, holding the Social Services and Health portfolio. He also served as secretary to U Razak before his assassination. U Khin Maung Lat was active in the Students’ organizations of Yangon University and had taken part in the very famous students’ strike of 1936. He successfully organized the Muslims in the whole of Burma to stand united under the AFPFL flag during the struggle for the independence. He worked together assisting U Razak. When AFPFL split in two, U Khin Maung Lat was with the Stable Faction. U Raschid remained with U Nu.[82][83]
  • Kyar (Tiger) Ba Nyein was a boxer who represented Burma in the Olympic games. He was also a successful coach, having trained many boxers and helped rejuvenate Burmese traditional boxing.
  • 'Myo Myint Nyein was the editor of the monthly magazine Payphuhlwar in Burma, and son of Kyar Ba Nyein. He was awarded the International Press Freedom Award in absentia by the Canadian Journalists for Free Expression.
  • Daw Win Mya Mya was a member of the NLD Mandalay Division Organizing Committee. She was assaulted by the SPDC forces and arrested in Depayin with other NLD members. Her sister Daw Tin Win Yee told Mizzima, "I am worried about her. This month is the period of Ramadan and she is being treated for her injury sustained in the Depayin incident".[84]
  • Maung Thaw Ka or Major Ba Thaw
  • U Sultan Mahmood was a wealthy and influential member of the government under U No, serving first as political secretary, and later as Minister of Health.[85]
  • Ambassador U Pe Khin was the most important negotiator and architect of the historical Panglon treaty. During the negotiations, General Aung San had decided to return to Rangoon rather than continue talks. U Pe Khin persuaded the general to stay for one night and to allow him to negotiate with the ethnic minority leaders. U Pe Khin successfully negotiated an agreement which led to the foundation of the Union of Burma.[86]
  • Captain Ohn Kyaw Myint was killed after a failed attempt of coup d'état during General Ne Win's rule.[87]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ For the sake of simplicity, the proper name, "Burma," is used in this article instead of the official name, "Myanmar."
  2. ^ Central Intelligence Agency 2008
  3. ^ a b c d e Yegar 1972, p. 2
  4. ^ Tun 2006, pp. 3-4
  5. ^ a b Luce & Tin 1960
  6. ^ Tun 2008, p. 42
  7. ^ a b c Dr. Tin Hlaing, leader of Myanmar delegates, at the Dialogue on Interfaith Cooperation at Yogyakarta on 6 & 7 December 2004, attended by 124 delegates from different religious traditions from 13 countries including 9 ASEAN members, organized by the Dept. of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia and the Dept. of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Australia, in cooperation with the Islamic Central Committee of Muhammadiyah of Singapore.[1] [2]
  8. ^ hikmah.info 2008
  9. ^ Ozturk 2003, ¶ 8
  10. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 6
  11. ^ Lay 1973
  12. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 9
  13. ^ a b c d Yegar 1972, p. 10
  14. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 20
  15. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 30
  16. ^ Fatimi 1961, p. 9
  17. ^ a b Yegar 1972, p. 7
  18. ^ Forever Group 1999, vol. 6, p. 350
  19. ^ Pathein University Students’ Magazine 1955-56, page 5.
  20. ^ Marga 1967, p. 137
  21. ^ Collis 1953
  22. ^ Radana Sedi Stone Inscriptions, Sigaing (1373-74)
  23. ^ Than 196-, pp. 87-96
  24. ^ Various notable facts in Myanmar History, in Burmese, by U Kyi BA History Honours. Page 156, 157.
  25. ^ http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/parames.htm
  26. ^ a b c Yegar 1972, p. 2
  27. ^ Collis 1936, p. 40
  28. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 5
  29. ^ Various notable facts in Myanmar History, in Burmese, by U Kyi BA History Honours.
  30. ^ Luce & Tin 1960, vol. 3, p. 172
  31. ^ Shin 1961
  32. ^ Sanʻʺ Chve 2005, vol. 2, pp. 168-169
  33. ^ a b c Luce & Tin 1960, p. 76
  34. ^ Luce & Tin 1960, pp. 80-81
  35. ^ a b c Luce & Tin 1960, p. 83
  36. ^ Oo 2004
  37. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 3
  38. ^ Let Ware Nawrattha’s Chronicles of Alaungpaya’s battles. Page 77.
  39. ^ Let Ware Nawrattha’s Chronicles of Alaungpaya’s battles. Page 98.
  40. ^ Let Ware Nawrattha’s Chronicles of Alaungpaya’s battles. Page 99.
  41. ^ Sanʻʺ Chve 2005, vol. 1, pp. 136-142
  42. ^ The Royal gazette of Bodawpaya, Criminal Law Royal Decree Vol. 4, page 176.
  43. ^ a b MRA 2005
  44. ^ USDS 2006
  45. ^ (The case of Hason Ali, a Rohingya from Arakan, Vs. Union of Burma, Supreme Court Criminal Miscellaneous Cases No. 155 & 156 of 1959. Nurul Islam. Present atmosphere in Arakan. The New Nation Newspaper, Bangladesh, Monday October 12, 1992.)
  46. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 12
  47. ^ Khan 1957
  48. ^ a b Collis 1938
  49. ^ Thaung 2002
  50. ^ Yegar 1972, pp. 32, 36
  51. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 36
  52. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 36-37
  53. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 37
  54. ^ a b c Yegar 1972, p. 38
  55. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 75-79
  56. ^ Yegar 1972, p. 75
  57. ^ http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102
  58. ^ http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102
  59. ^ http://www.khrg.org/khrg2002/khrg0202.html
  60. ^ Images Asia 1997
  61. ^ MAR 2007
  62. ^ a b c d HRN 2002
  63. ^ Ozturk 2003, ¶ 22
  64. ^ http://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck4.htm#P103_22688
  65. ^ Ozturk 2003
  66. ^ BNN 2001
  67. ^ USDS 2002
  68. ^ Ozturk 2003, ¶ 23-4
  69. ^ Yegar 1972, pp. 75, 80, 90, 108, 111
  70. ^ Aung 2007
  71. ^ http://tayzathuria.org.uk/politicianof2006.htm
  72. ^ http://tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2007/1/07/kma.htm readers
  73. ^ http://www.ncgub.net/staticpages/index.php/MP-update-August2007
  74. ^ “History of Myanmar Muslims”, (limited edition for members only) Muslim Students Association, Rangoon Arts and Science University, Burma.
  75. ^ Sanʻʺ Chve 2005, vol. 2, p. 157
  76. ^ Sanʻʺ Chve 2005, vol. 2, p. 166
  77. ^ Soe 2001
  78. ^ Ludu Daw Ah Mar, Shwe Yoe, Ba Galay - Artists of the same names in 2 volumes 1969
  79. ^ Naing 2001
  80. ^ Yegar 1972, p. xi, Acknowledgements
  81. ^ Yegar 1972, pp. 52, 81, 90, 93, 110, 112
  82. ^ “History of Myanmar Muslims”, (limited edition for members only) Muslim Students Association, Rangoon Arts and Science University, Burma.
  83. ^ Yegar 1972, pp. 76, 85, 91, 94, 110, 112
  84. ^ Burma News 2004
  85. ^ Press Release, Rohingya Patriotic Front 9-2-1966.
  86. ^ General Ne win’s personal assistant, Thetkatho Ne Win’s records.
  87. ^ History of Myanmar Muslims, Rangoon University Islamic Association.

[edit] References

  • “Aung Sans’ Plan for Reconstruction of Corrupted Myanmar” by Dr San Oo Aung published in Burma Digest on 14 May 2006.
  • The press releases of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, March 12, 1992.
  • N. Kamal. Building confidence in Rohingyas’ mind. The New Nation Newspaper, Dhaka, Bangladesh, April 26, 1992.
  • Nurul Islam. Present atmosphere in Arakan. The New Nation Newspaper, Bangladesh, Monday October 12, 1992.
  • Press Release, Rohingya Patriotic Front 9-2-1966.
  • Burma Digest Bo Aung Din’s Compassionate Letters- About Myanmar Muslims. and Myanmar Indian Muslims.

[edit] External links

v • d • e
Islam by country
*
v • d • e
Islam in Africa
Sovereign states
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories

Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla (Spain) · Madeira (Portugal) · Mayotte / Réunion (France) · Puntland · St. Helena (UK) · Socotra (Yemen) · Somaliland · Southern Sudan · Western Sahara · Zanzibar (Tanzania)
Italics indicate an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1 Transcontinental country. 
v • d • e
Islam in Asia
Sovereign
states
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories
Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country.  1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions.  2 Officially known as Myanmar.  3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste.  4 Transcontinental country.  5 Commonly known as Taiwan. 
v • d • e
Islam in North America
Sovereign states The North American continent with country borders
Dependencies and
other territories
1 Territories also in or commonly considered to be part of South America.
v • d • e
Islam in South America
Sovereign states
Dependencies
1 Territories also in or commonly considered to be part of North America and/or Central America.  2 Territories also in or commonly considered to be part of Antarctica.
v • d • e
Islam in Oceania
Sovereign states
Dependencies and
other territories
1 Transcontinental country.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Burma"
Personal tools
Visit joltnews for the latest headlines
Visit bloit.com for company information
Geed Media does computer consulting on long island.
This page viewed times. See Logs